Trends of Curriculum Development in Ethiopia- a historical Perspective

Contents:

ü The Traditional Curriculum, and

ü The Modern Curriculum.

The Traditional Curriculum

objectives:

At the end of this session, students will be able to:

ü  identify  the basic kinds of traditional curriculum in Ethiopia

ü  describe the basic reason for its limited impact in Ethiopian education

Activity4.1.

a) On the basis of your group interview old people, religious fathers about the status, basic characteristics and impacts of indigenous education, Islamic education and Christian education to present education in Ethiopia

Session 4.2. The Modern Education

                          Activit4.2.

a)       Discuss on the basic differences between traditional and modern education in Ethiopia

b)       Discuss and Identify the basic external influence of modern education in Ethiopia

c)       Interview education experts in the region about the basic problems of modern education in Ethiopia that lead to the NETP, and Identify as to how the NETP minimizes or solves those problems

d) Discuss on the basic forces that led from traditional education to modern education in Ethiopia)

4.1.    Introduction

Ethiopia, with its diversified cultural groups has its own distinctive calendar, writing, art, music, poetic forms and numeration system. This seems to have laid a foundation to establish traditional education for the purpose of transmitting these cultural heritages to the next generation.  In addition to these, the introduction of different religions into Ethiopia has also led to the introduction of religious education in the country. These social and cultural foundations were influential factors that made the philosophy of Ethiopian education to be the training of the child in the beliefs and social values of the society. Hence the purpose of education becomes the transmission of the worthwhile cultural heritages of the past to reconstruct the education system of the present. By doing so retainable, worthwhile cultural heritages can be scrutinized and sustained; nonscientific and dogmatic beliefs and harmful cultural practices can be eliminated or at least system is to be used minimized. At the same time knowledge system is to be used as a form of reference to evaluate the........ To modern school and traditional school system. The purpose of this unit is, there fore to outline a review of the history of Ethiopian education past to present.

4.2.    Traditional Education in Ethiopia

Traditional education in Ethiopia societies has their own indigenous type of education which was responsible for the socialization of the child. The purpose of the indigenous education was to make the child society fit. To this effect, the child has to learn the values, norms, beliefs, ideals, etc. of the social group so that she/he knows the rules and regulations, the taboos, his/her roles and responsibilities and be prepared for life in the society. Thus, the child learns through interaction with family and community members. At first the family and later on the larger community is the school. The community elderly are selected as role models and the child acquires knowledge and develops skills through oral interaction and observation she/he imitates what adults are doing. She/he practices what she/he has learned under the supervision of the family or the community elderly. when it is belived that she/he has reached an age and mastered the necessary knowledge and skills that prepare him for adult life she/he is examined through the method of initiation. During initiation the young person is expected to exhibit knowledge, skills and physical strength that meet the standards set by the social group. Upon passing this test of mental and physical fitness the young person is allowed to enjoy the privileges of the adult and is made to now the secrets of the social  group and shoulder certain responsibilities.

4.2.2. Traditional Church Education

The education system in Ethiopia is said to date back to the sixth C-B-C, when the  Sakian alphabet was used in the Axumite kingdom (Yalw, 1976). However, it is towards the beginning of the 4^th C-A-D. that the church become a formal indigenous institution of education when king Ezana accepted Christianity. At the beginning there were three languages namely the Sabean, Greek and Geez used in church education where later on Geez became dominant.

The primary purpose of Ethiopian Church education was to teach the doctrines of Christianity and it aimed producing church men such as priests and deacons. The content was mainly Biblical which included theology, history, poetry, music etc. Later on it involved the training of personnel for clerical services in the government and production of civil servants such as governors, teachers and administrators (Teshome Wagaw, 1979).

The church was acted as the guardian and preserver of traditional Ethiopian culture. Moral and ethical elements, Reading and writing were also part of the curriculum- Sophisticated literacy forms such as 'Kine' (poem) and music were soon developed as a result of the teachings of yared the most known church music composes.

Deposit this fact, church education was not accepted as mass education since it was reserved for the few elite and did not offer any opportunity for employment. Moreover, a child enrolled in church education has to face hardships in the search for instruction. In most cases the child traveled long distances to find well versed teachers and depended on beginning for survival. It might be due to this fact that church education was mainly attended by boys than girls

The traditional church school had no buildings but students were taught in the church yard or in the teacher's house. The size of the class and the qualification of teachers varied from school to school depending on the location and the level of learning. The number is greater at monasteries but gets smaller at the higher levels.

4.2.2.1. Structure of Church education

The structure of church education included elementary, intermediary and higher levels of learning. To this effect the (church has developed a complex, system of education which includes various stages logically organized.

The first stage is known as Nebabbet which aims at training the child to read the alphabets first and religious books after on. At this stage the child is constantly drilled to master, the alphabets and gradually exposed to reading skills till she/he becomes proficient in reading the 'Dawit'

The second stage is 'Zemabet' which includes singing drumming and devicing.

The third stage is "Akuakuam" or Kidare Bet' aimed at the training of the altar priest for the service of the church.

The fourth in ' Quene  Bet' (poetry school) and the fifth stage 'Meshaf bet' (school of commensaries) where astronomy is taught.

In each of the above specialized branches, the student learned the traditional of the church: Church music, poetry, theology, Church history and laws (Yales, 1976)

Completion of the traditional church school is very difficult and long-lasting. The traditional scholar's road is, therefore, long and ardous, occupying 30-40 years of a man's life before the highest qualifications are obtained (yalew, 1976)

Despite all these hardships, the teacher never expresses any sign of dissatisfaction. Particularly, the highly qualified 'leg' is highly devoted to his profession and therefore, imparts his knowledge to his fellow students without pay.

As an authority in his field of specialization, he feels a king of himself and servant of mankind (Yalew, 1976)

4.2.2.2. Teaching Method in Traditional Church School

The method used at all levels ideas mainly oral which involved memorization and recitation. This approach pays little attention for students learning and is said to be a mechanical approach that doesn't contribute to develop the learner's creativity and imagination.  Memorization and Recitation as methods of teaching have the following limitations:

1.      Little is done by the teacher as his role is minimized to the hearing of lessons

2.      Recitation doesn't allow students to follow up personal interests as the whole operation is textbook dominated, and

3.      Too much time is spent by students in memorizing destracts from religious books like the 'Bible' and the 'Kuran.

To motivate students to work hard corporal punishment was used as a means. There is also exposure to misery and hardships. Though the church school teachers were admired for their sincerity and devotion they are criticized for their traditional method of teaching.

4.2.2.3. Evaluation of Church School

There is no formal evaluation to test the child's work. But the teacher monitors the day to day progress of his students and finally the student will be asked to orally recite on previously assigned material and upon successful recitation of the assigned material, that is, when the teacher is convinced that the child has mastered the art, then he will be released to the next level. If not, he will study the same material or is turned back.

Despite the hardship, the relationship between the teacher and the taught was paternalistic and corchiel. For instance, on a certain festival day students bring old and drink to their teacher  and wish him a good day. In return they get blessing from the teacher. Teachers were also highly praised by their students. One of the applauds and good wishes in Amharic goes "u¾’@ Ñ<aa ÖÏ Ã”q`q` u’@ Ñ<aa ›Ø”ƒ Ãk`k`" The literal translating man mean. "In the throat of the teacher let 'Tej' liquer made of honey pour, In y throat let a bone splinter tor.

For many centuries, church education has been the vehicle of church literature and religious ceremonial.  It has reserved the  cultural heritage and has passed it to the coming generation. It trained various categories of church personnel. Above all, it provided literacy to many children and equipped them with the initial tools of learning. Despite this fact, however, church education is criticized for its indoctration, preading that life on earth is meaningless and so there is no need to worry about what to eat or wear, but to think about life after death. Such an approach is said to block the advancement of science and technology and introduction of modern education and change.

4.2.3. Traditional Koramic Scchools

Even though the Islamic religion was known in Ethiopian from the time of the coming of the first followers of Mohammed in the 5^th C.A.D it was only the 16^th century A.D. on wards, after Ahmed Gragn's in vasion that the religion of Islam has developed its own system of education and the teaching of Kuran was started. The aim of the Koranic School was mainly to teach the docrtines of Islam.

The structure of Kuranic school included elementary and higher levels of learning. At the primary level the students learn reading and writing in Arabic. At the next higher levels of learning contents such as the teaching of the Islamic canon Law (Fish), Arabic grammar (Naheu) and the commentaries (Tesfir) are offered.

The process of instruction and evaluation are more or less the same as that of the church school. Most Kuranic schools are not attached to mosques, rather they are usually established in a Muslim community by a teacher known as 'Sheik' who is will versed in Islamic Studies. Te teacher depends for his livelihood on parents gifts which he gets when children succeed various levels of the course.

4.2.1.      Mission Schools:

Starting from the second half of the 16^th century A.D. European missionaries have played significant roles in the education system of Ethiopia. This was the time when Christopher de Gama of Portugal arrived in Ethiopian with an expeditionary force to assist Emperor Litna Dingh whose country had been largely overrun by Ahmed Grange (Bender, 1976).

At the beginning, the Portuguese attend to preach Chatolic doctrine was in vain. However, they were able to open school through the support of Emperor Susinyos who was conversed to Catholicism in 1622 (Bender, 1976) and who then forced his subjects to adopt his faith. This was followed by strong opposition and revolt against the emperor by the large sector of the Ethiopian population. Consequently, Emperor Susinyos abdicated in 1632 in favour of his son Fasiledes who then expelled the Jesits and begener reinforcing the original Orthodox Christian faith. This resulted in isolation ofthe country cut off from missionary activities for about 299 years. In the early years of the 19^th Century contact with Europe and Protestant missionaries revived again (MOE, 1973). In the 1830s, Iseberg and Kraft (protestant missionaries) taught boys in Shoa in their mission school (Bender, 1976). In 1841/142, Isenberg published the first secular books in Amharic (Benders 1976). Unlike the traditional schools, throught the effort of these missionaries, modern type of education like spelling, reading a book, geography and history were introduced in the school curriculum.

The Roman Catholic missions of the nineteenth century were predominately French and their schools taught French in three major centers: Eriteria, Shoa and later.

While the Catholic missions  employer French as a medium of instruction, the protestant missions used English which later on became on important language in Ethiopian school ever since (MOE, 1971).

At present, mission schools are disseminated throughout the country and they offer all types of education including teacher training. Many mission schools have gained more higher standard of education than any of the traditional schools. Per keys this can be attributed as one of the major factors for the expansion of mission schools in the country (Yalew, 1976).

4.3.    The development of modern Education in Ethiopia

The development of modern education in Ethiopia is a twentieth century phenomena. Although the ambitious and enlightened Emperor Theodros saw the need for modern technology and invited foreign craftsmen to come to his country and teach his people the skills of metal work and carpentry, it was not before the turn of the 20^th Century that objective conditions necessitated the establishment of modern education in Ethiopia. Among the conditions were:

-      the formation of a centralized government at the close of the 19^th Century which demanded the establishment of diplomatic relations with the external world.

-      the establishment of the Franco-Ethiopian railway which linked the country with the external world and demanded mechanics and technicians for its running.

-      the introduction of modern means of communication such as telephone, radio, postal system which required trained personnel to maintain the establishments functioning.

In addition to this, the view that Ethiopia, once a great and powerful nation, had stagnated due to conservatism and resistance to change, had gained ground as a result of the advocacy of modern education by the contemporary authors such as Gebrehiwet Baykedagne, Blatta Gebregziabher. Gila Mariam, Afework Gebreyesus and Alefa Taye Gebre Mariam (Tekeste, 1990). On top of  these it was believed that education held the key to Ethiopias development.

On the other hand, the Ethiopian Church, which up to that period had a virtual monopoly on education, strongly opposed the establishment of seuldr school. Emperor Minilik overcome church opposition by giving in to many of its demands (Tekeste, 1990)

Emperor Minilik II, following Emperor Theodros steps saw the need for the introduction of new technology and brought three sauiss artisans - an iron worker, wood worker and civil engineer in 1877, among which Alfred Ilg was the civil engineer. The arrival of these men underlined the need to develop new forms of education in the country (MOE,1973). Accordingly the first modern government school was opened in 1908 with the aim of producing interpreters and Clerks. The curriculum mainly contained the teaching of foreign languages such as French, English, Italian, Arabic and the native language Amharic, During the first twenty years of its existence, Minilik school resembled a language institute rather than a proper school (Tekeste, 1990).

Following the opening of Minilik II school in Addis Ababa other schools were opened at Ankober, Dessie and Harar. Because of the inability of the country to bring up its own education modern education was introduced from abroad. Menilik II school was staffed by Egyptian teachers who employed French as a medium of instruction. The curriculum included French, English, Italian, Arabic, Mathematics and Science and the native language Amharic. Secular authorities became responsible for the program.

The purposes of education were to keep the ruling elote for better contact with the outside world and to make the elite competent in court affairs and in defining law articles, Pbjectives of education emphasized on loyality to king and country.

The opening of modern schools. continued after Minilik II. Between 1924 - 1931 several government schools were opened both in Addis and in the provinces including the Teferi Mekonen school which was opened in 1924.

The curriculum in operation what not indigenous but was one which was brought from France. This entailed the offering of education in French. Ethiopians were alien to the French experience and the curriculum become alien. In addition, French education was characterized by assimilation.

This modern education was not accepted in Ethiopia. It was opposed by the coptic Cherch of Alexanderia and Syria for its emphasis on worldly affairs. As a result of this aopposition the curriculum was made to include moral education, Ethiopian history, Geez reading and writing. By the eve of the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, there were about 22 primary schools throughout the country.

Unfortunately, this modest but promising progress in modern education was interrupted by the Italian invasion in 1935. As a result of the invasion, all government schools were closed down and the few educated were killed by the Italians.

In 1941 when Ethiopia restored its freedom the immediate need of the country was to rebuild the education system to generate a supply of Ethiopian persoanl. This noble aim, however, was challenged by the problem of staffing the schools.

In 1942 the Ministry of Public Education and Fine Arts was Established with H.E. Ato Mekonen Desta as the first minister (MOE, 1973). Britain offered an aid to run modern education which brought about the elimination of the French influence and introduction of the British influence. Closed schools were spend and preparation and printing of Amharic textbooks for elementary schools were in progress. For the first time that years expenditure on education amounted to 6000,000 birr

In 1943 the first secondary school called G.S.I.S.S., was opened in Addis Ababa with an initial intake of 43 students. In this school the teachers were predominantly expatriates. In this school the teachers were predominately expatiates and the medium of instruction was English.

There was hardly any centralized curriculum. All the schools were administered by foreign principals and headmasters of different nationalities. They followed the kind of curriculum through which they have passed or see it fit. There were no definite programs for the primary school. This  created problem of standardization and caused disparity. There were no clearly defined objectives and no unity in objectives and hence the disparity.

After independence Ethiopian government was engaged in the expansion of education without consideration as to relevance. Expenditure on education rose from just over half a million birr in 1942 to over 19 million by 1958-59. Thus the second highest item in the national budget become education structure of the educational system was three tiered 4-4-4. The first four years were for primary, the next four years for middle or intermediate and the third four years for secondary education.

During this period because of the operation of mission and private schools along lines of different nationalities and religious beliefs it was not possible to build an Ethiopian system of education .

To do away with problems cited above, the first curriculum committee was established by the Board of Education formed to study and recognize the educational system by the education act of 1947. The Board determined as a matter of policy that all the elementary schools of the country should have the same teaching schedule.

The development of new ideology and political influence came to the fore after the end of the 2^nd world war and Ethiopia could not escape this influence. It was at this time that the American influence began. As part of an aid package the American began to shape the Ethiopian  educational policy through an education advisory group. The purpose of the group was to control education, to design and define a unified curriculum and publish text books, Accordingly, the first relatively organized curriculum appeared in 1948-49.

The point Four Scheme was turned on in 1950 with the aim of producing a scheme of curriculum development project. The structure of education become a 6-6 structure. After a while the structure was changed to 8-4 structure. Reason was language problem since the medium of instruction was English.

In 1951 the first university college was opened in Addis Ababa with an initial intake of 75 students. This marked the beginning of tertiary level education which was followed by the opening of engineering, building, agriculture and public health colleges.

An regards the aim of education the first curriculum had the following.

1.      In conformity with the need of the hour, to establish both adequate institutions for the educational  care of the young ... and make sure these schools ensure normal spiritual, mental, physical growth to the coming generation.

2.      In view of the interruption, in which many of the youth of the present generation had their schools stopped, to extend the superstructure of the plan to afford as many of them as possible an opportunity to regain, at least in part, their unavoidable instructional bases.

3.      To further extend the plan to bring eventually general literacy within this generation, to the entire population by means of mass education.

Standards of education in other countries and subject matter included in the curriculum are said to have been considered as they concern Ethiopia. Meeting these two characteristics was the main problem of the curriculum. In line with this, the content for secondary school syllabus was entirely selected based upon what appears essential for Ethiopian children and on what is usually included in the generally accepted curriculum entirely on the London School Leaving Certificate Examination without regard to its relevance, to Ethiopia, the creation and staffing of the various ministries and authorities along the western type of formal education

Promotion from one level of school system to the next is checked by external examination given by Ministry of Education at the 6^th, 8^th and 12^th grades (MOE, 1969). At the end of grade 12, the S.L./e was qualifying students fro a variety of higher level learning. The programmer range from one year diploma courses to four year degree courses. In addition, courses for architecture, low and medicine range between 5 to 7 years.

This curriculum was criticized for reasons that the aim remaining national the content is made foreign. The educated is expected to apply his knowledge in solving immediate problems of the society but fails to do so for the learning experiences he has acquired are alien to the Ethiopian situation and can not use his knowledge. As a result knowledge becomes impractical to achieve intent. The selection of contents is said to be examination oriented. Most of the tie is devoted to academic subject, English having the lion's share.

Overall the contents are borrowed from foreign countries and are directly implanted with out any adaptation. As a result, there was a disparity between objectives and contents and the contents could not serve to achieve the desired ends. The subjects were more theoretical.

There was also a mix up of contents. For instance, in mathematics the students were made to learn the British system after having learned the metric system and this created complication. The history and geography contents were more of the external world jumping from content to continent, from country to country. As a result the syllabi of most of the subjects lack relevance to Ethiopian needs.

To overcome these problems a long term planning committee was appointed in 1953 and this committee designed the 4-4-4 structured curriculum. The original tendency of the educational system was designed to develop the humanities, later on, however, the emphasis has been on technical and vocational education to provide plumbers, engineers mechanics of various kinds, electricians, agriculturalists, artisans as well as experts. The committee recommended that the curriculum be designed to prepare the learner for life in his community or immediate environment.

Later on a national planning committee was constituted which produced the first five year development plan 1957-61. The plan stressed the need for trained manpower. In accordance with this plan the second curriculum appeared in 1959.

Since 1957, though a number of attempts were made to adapt the curriculum to the realities of Ethiopia, it remained bookish and academic oriented; different policies were set but little was done in practice.

The curricula were based for the most part on overseas models and reflected little in the way of Ethiopia content. The administration of modern education systems in the country was dominated by expatriates. As this was the case and while the government of Ethiopia continued to believe that it was laying down the foundations for the rapid development of the new Ethiopian, intellectuals like Dr. Mulugeta Wodajo (1959) reflected on the basic problems of the education sector: Dr. Mulugeta, pointed out, among other things, the following limitations of the educational system of the day.

-      The inadequacy of the system

-      The irrelevance of the curriculum

-      The administrative and intellectual confusion created by the deliberate, recruitment of teachers from many nations, and

-      Over centralization.

Equipped with the recommendation of the long term planning committee and the resolutions of the Addis Ababa conference on African Education (1961), the Ministry of Education proceeded to expand education well beyond its financial limits (Tekeste, 1990 p.7). Especially the objectives set by the Addis Ababa conference on African Education, that is, universal primary education by 1980, plunged Ethiopia into a policy of expansion of the sector without regard to quality and job opportunities. To overcome the shortage of funds the cooperation between the world Band and the Ethiopian government to expand education began in 1966.

The first education project signed in 1966 and completed in 1972, assisted in the expansion of secondary, technical and teacher education, and in the diversification of curricula at various levels (Tekeste, 1990). Between 1966 - 1984 six education projects well signed to improve the different aspects of education including quality and equity but to no avail. The world Bank invested nearly 200 US dollars for the six projects.

While the education sector, gaining its own momentum expanded virtually uncontrolled, the Ministry of Education attempted to restructure the system without any significant success. In 1963-64 the grade structure was changed from the 4-4-4 year combination into six years of primary school, followed by two years of junior secondary and a four year secondary programme, that is a 6+2+4 year combination (Tekeste, 1990)

Despite all these efforts there was an enormous disparity between the educational program and the needs arising from the social situations. As a result there were a strong calls from educators, intellectuals, university students, government officials, and students often echoed by parents, for further improvement of the educational system.

Dissatisfaction which the educational sector was also voiced by conservative elements; the church and the nobility pointed out that those who passed through the modern school were disrespectful of their society and its institutions. They argued that there was very little that was Ethiopian in the curriculum. Further-more, they jointed to the problem of employment facing secondary graduates- a most paradoxical situation in a country where only about four percent of the age group had access to secondary education and where over 90 percent of the population were illiterate. As a response to the above criticism. The Education sector Review (ESR) was officially constituted in 1971 with the following responsibilities:

-      to analyze the education and training system of Ethiopia and its capability of promoting economic, social and cultural development;

-      to suggest whenever necessary ways to improve and expand the education and training system in order that it might achieve aims relevant both to the society and the overall development of the  country;

-      to suggest ways in which education could best be utilized to promote a natural integration; and

-      to identify priority studies and investments in education and training  (Tekeste, 1990)

Study results of the Education sector Review proposed three alternatives designed to hasten the pace of primary education. The first alternative proposed three alternatives designed to hasten the pace of primary education. The first alternative proposed a three tier system based on six years of primary, their yers of junior secondary and four years of senior secondary schooling (6+4+4)

Alternative two, called for a system based on four years of primary education (known as minimum formation education) for the great majority of the population. Followed by another four years junior secondary program and next foru years of senior secondary program (4+4+4).

Alternative three was a modification of alternative two (4+2+2) where the junior secondary is reduced from four to two years. It was also suggested that students begin grade one at nine years of age.

The ESR conference that met in August 1972 approved alternative two that is the 4+4+4 year system. According to this system a great majority of school-age population attend a four year primary education. About 20 percent would then proceed to follow another four year junior secondary programme. The best of those completing great eight would be allowed to attend the four year senior secondary programme. More over, the S.R. made the rural population the target of educational policy. It was also envisaged that secondary educationo would increase at the rate of the growth of the population, estimated at 2.1 percent per annum. This was indeed a sharp decrease compared with the over 10 percent annual inclement of senior secondary enrolment during the decade of the 1960s (Tekeste, 1990)

The recommendations of the ESR were not implement, partly because the urban population parents, students, teachers- [received the decrease in secondary enrolment and the emphasis given to the rural population as a detrimental to their interests. The crisis in education and the recommendations of the ESR mobilized. Students and teachers to strike and led to sucessive wave of local and national strikes that began early in 1974 and continued unabated until the overthrow of the Imperial system in september 1974.

4.4.    Post Revolution Ethiopian Education

The Ethiopian Revolution of 1974 enforced drastic change which brought about a new social system. Ideological changes brought about changes in the political, economic and social aspects as a result of which there was a need for a new educational system.

At the start of the revolution of the Imperial regime was criticized for being elitist giving more emphasis to intellectual education produce while color professionals disregarding technical education. It was regarded as less labour oriented and less democratic. It is said to be not equally distributed and have dual characteristics- quality education for the higher class and lower quality education for the lower class children. In addition it is criticized for pursuing a curriculum that was foreign to the needs of the country.

In an attempt to change this type of educational system a new educational policy was sought that emphasized on socialist ideology. The policy included

-      The provision of education for all

-      giving equal opportunity for technical, vocational labour and physical education, and education for production, for scientific research and for class struggle, became the three mottos of education and a transitional curriculum was set. Educational policies were set by adapting some socialist countries' educational experiences and by borrowing the technological and intellectual exercises.

The post revolution military state accepted the challenge of exponding the education sector on the assumption that education held the key to the country's development (Tekeste 1990)

Between 1976-1982 the MOE developed a plan designed to avoid the growing pool of unemployable secondary school graduates. According to this plan, emphasis was to be  placed on  providing eight years of universal polytechnical education and on a curriculum that would enhance integration into the world of labour. This policy, partially accepted by the government, had the abiton of providing eight years of universal education to all children of primary school age by 1986 (Tekeste, 1990).

The major problem of the transitional curriculum was the question of centralization and democratization, and problem of balance between change and continuity. Democratization of education allowed: for participation of parents in the school administration.

-      fpr establishing schools in the boarder areas of the country which led to shortage of trained teachers and teaching resources.

-      for privatization of schools and this made the control less effective

-      The problem of the use of Amharic as a medium of instruction in the country of multi nationalities was felt.

-      The question of having a balanced curriculum which would help to produce an intellectually and ideologically matured poison and a proposionally trained one become the question of the day. As a result of the more expansion of schools. The decline in the quality of education was sensed.

-      To the effect of identifying the causes of the decline the government passed a resolution in 1983 calling for a review of the education sector. Seen after, the ministry of Education initiated a project known as the Evaluative Research on the General Education system of Ethiopia (ERGESE).

The ERGESE project and the following objectives

              i.      to examine the degree of integration of each subject with the national educational objectives;

            ii.      to analyze student textbooks with the aim of understanding their integration (content and clarity) with the national objectives;

          iii.      to assess the impact of time allocation, language of instruction, and the material delivery system on educational objectives;

          iv.      to look into the factors affecting students' reception of education;

            v.      to examine teachers' attitudes to their profession;

          vi.      to assess inputs and attitudes of parents; and finally.

        vii.      to assess the teaching learning process

The aim of education of the day was ideology oriented and this was clearly expressed at the founding congress of the workers party of Ethiopia (WPE) in 1984. It reads.

The fundamental aim of education in our country today is to cultivate Marxist-Leninist ideology in the young generation, to develop knowledge in science and technology, in the new culture and the arts, and to integrate and coordinate research which production to enable the Revolution to move forward and secure productive citizens.

The summery report of ERGESE begins by pour ting out the bottlenecks that affect the quality of education. Classes throughout the country are cancelled with out reasons. The number of students has greatly expanded, thus creating a serious shortage of classrooms. There is a great shortage of school instruments, beginning with the components for laboratories and textbooks. The competence of teachers leaves a great deal to be desired. Student ambitions are judged to be very law. Many reasons are given both for low motivation and for very high drop out rated in the first and sixth trades. Both teachers and students concentrate on the exam rather than on the acquisition and retention of knowledge. The stages of the education ladder, i.e. Primary, junior secondary, and  coordina.... . And finally, the gap between theory and practice is too wide due to the problem of the lack of physical space in schools. 83% of the schools have no access to agricultural plots, thus turning the main objective, i.e. education for production, in to purely theoretical exercise, Here, it is worth nothing, Tekeste's (1990) argument to continue to expect the realization or implementation of the objective "education for production." without first fulfilling the minimum requirements, amounts to viewing the school as a miracle performing institution.

ERGESE also reported that the expansion of the educational system is not in accordance with the economic resource capability of the state.

The final ERGESE report containing the findings and recommendations was submitted to the government at the end of 1985. Since then it has not been  possible to establish the extent to which the government adopted the recommendations, It appears that the government has either ignored the ERGESE report or simply shelved it. But one thing is clear, that is, the Ethiopian education became far more worest, in the latter days, than what has been reported by ERGESE. This was manifested by the increase in class size which reached in some urban schools to 120 students in a class and the introduction of the half day school or shift system, Shortage of texts and teachers. Problem in Proficiency of the English language become so prominent that Amharic or native language was used to make ease of communication and understanding of contents.

4.5. The New Education and Training Policy  

2.      Historical Account of Ethiopian Education

4.5.    Introduction

Ethiopia, with its diversified cultural groups has its own distinctive calendar, writing, art, music, poetic forms and numeration system. This seems to have laid a foundation to establish traditional education for the purpose of transmitting these cultural heritages to the next generation.  In addition to these, the introduction of different religions into Ethiopia has also led to the introduction of religious education in the country. These social and cultural foundations were influential factors that made the philosophy of Ethiopian education to be the training of the child in the beliefs and social values of the society. Hence the purpose of education become the transmission of the worthwhile cultural heritages of the past to reconstruct the education system of the present. By doing so retainable, worthwhile cultural heritages can be scrutinized and sustained; nonscientific and dogmatic beliefs and harmful cultural practices can  be eliminated or at least system is to be used minimized. At the same time knowledge system is to be used as a form of reference to evaluate the ........ to  modern school and traditional school system. The purpose of this unit is, there fore to outline a review of the history of Ethiopian education past to present.

4.6.    Traditional Education in Ethiopia

Traditional education in Ethiopia societyies have their own indeginous type of education which was responsible for the socialization of the child. The purpose of the indeginous education was to make the child society fit. To this effect the child has to learn the values, norms, beliefs, ideals, etc. of the social group so that she/he knows the riles and regulations, the taboos, his roles and responsibilities and be prepared for life in the society. These, the child learns through interaction with family and  community members. At first the family is the school and later on the larger community. The community elderly are selected as role models and the child acquires knowledge and develops skills through oral interaction and observation she/he imitates what adults are doing. She/he practices what she/he has learned under the supervision of the family or the community elderly. when it is belived that she/he has reached an age and mastered the necessary knowledge and skills that prepare him for adult life she/he is examined through the method of initiation. During initiation the young person is expected to exhibit knowledge, skills and physical strength that meet the standards set by the social group. Upon passing this test of mental and physical fitness the young person is allowed to enjoy the privileges of the adult and is made to now the secrets of the social  group and shoulder certain responsibilities.

4.2.2. Traditional Church Education

The education system in Ethiopia is said to date back to the sixth C-B-C, when the  Sakian alphabet was used in the Axumite kingdom (Yalw, 1976). However, it is towards the beginning of the 4^th C-A-D. that the church become a formal indigenous institution of education when king Ezana accepted Christianity. At the beginning there were three languages namely the Sabean, Greek and Geez used in church education where later on Geez became dominant.

The primary purpose of Ethiopian Church education was to teach the doctrines of Christianity and it aimed producing church men such as priests and deacons. The content was mainly Biblical which included theology, history, poetry, music etc. Later on it involved the training of personnel for clerical services in the government and production of civil servants such as governors, teachers and administrators (Teshome Wagaw, 1979).

The church was acted as the guardian and preserver of traditional Ethiopian culture. Moral and ethical elements, Reading and writing were also part of the curriculum- Sophisticated literacy forms such as 'Kine' (poem) and music were soon developed as a result of the teachings of yared the most known church music composes.

Deposit this fact, church education was not accepted as mass education since it was reserved for the few elite and did not offer any opportunity for employment. Moreover, a child enrolled in church education has to face hardships in the search for instruction. In most cases the child traveled long distances to find well versed teachers and depended on beginning for survival. It might be due to this fact that church education was mainly attended by boys than girls

The traditional church school had no buildings but students were taught in the church yard or in the teacher's house. The size of the class and the qualification of teachers varied from school to school depending on the location and the level of learning. The number is greater at monasteries but gets smaller at the higher levels.

4.2.2.1. Structure of Church education

The structure of church education included elementary, intermediary and higher levels of learning. To this effect the (church has developed a complex, system of education which includes various stages logically organized.

The first stage is known as Nebabbet which aims at training the child to read the alphabets first and religious books after on. At this stage the child is constantly drilled to master, the alphabets and gradually exposed to reading skills till she/he becomes proficient in reading the 'Dawit'

The second stage is 'Zemabet' which includes singing drumming and devicing.

The third stage is "Akuakuam" or Kidare Bet' aimed at the training of the altar priest for the service of the church.

The fourth in ' Quene  Bet' (poetry school) and the fifth stage 'Meshaf bet' (school of commensaries) where astronomy is taught.

In each of the above specialized branches, the student learned the traditional of the church: Church music, poetry, theology, Church history and laws (Yales, 1976)

Completion of the traditional church school is very difficult and long-lasting. The traditional scholar's road is, therefore, long and ardous, occupying 30-40 years of a man's life before the highest qualifications are obtained (yalew, 1976)

Despite all these hardships, the teacher never expresses any sign of dissatisfaction. Particularly, the highly qualified 'leg' is highly devoted to his profession and therefore, imparts his knowledge to his fellow students without pay.

As an authority in his field of specialization, he feels a king of himself and servant of mankind (Yalew, 1976)

4.2.2.2. Teaching Method in Traditional Church School

The method used at all levels ideas mainly oral which involved memorization and recitation. This approach pays little attention for students learning and is said to be a mechanical approach that doesn't contribute to develop the learner's creativity and imagination.  Memorization and Recitation as methods of teaching have the following limitations:

1.      Little is done by the teacher as his role is minimized to the hearing of lessons

2.      Recitation doesn't allow students to follow up personal interests as the whole operation is textbook dominated, and

3.      Too much time is spent by students in memorizing destracts from religious books like the 'Bible' and the 'Kuran.

To motivate students to work hard corporal punishment was used as a means. There is also exposure to misery and hardships. Though the church school teachers were admired for their sincerity and devotion they are criticized for their traditional method of teaching.

4.2.2.3. Evaluation of Church School

There is no formal evaluation to test the child's work. But the teacher monitors the day to day progress of his students and finally the student will be asked to orally recite on previously assigned material and upon successful recitation of the assigned material, that is, when the teacher is convinced that the child has mastered the art, then he will be released to the next level. If not, he will study the same material or is turned back.

Despite the hardship, the relationship between the teacher and the taught was paternalistic and corchiel. For instance, on a certain festival day students bring old and drink to their teacher  and wish him a good day. In return they get blessing from the teacher. Teachers were also highly praised by their students. One of the applauds and good wishes in Amharic goes "u¾’@ Ñ<aa ÖÏ Ã”q`q` u’@ Ñ<aa ›Ø”ƒ Ãk`k`" The literal translating man mean. "In the throat of the teacher let 'Tej' liquer made of honey pour, In y throat let a bone splinter tor.

For many centuries, church education has been the vehicle of church literature and religious ceremonial.  It has reserved the  cultural heritage and has passed it to the coming generation. It trained various categories of church personnel. Above all, it provided literacy to many children and equipped them with the initial tools of learning. Despite this fact, however, church education is criticized for its indoctration, preading that life on earth is meaningless and so there is no need to worry about what to eat or wear, but to think about life after death. Such an approach is said to block the advancement of science and technology and introduction of modern education and change.

4.2.3. Traditional Koramic Scchools

Even though the Islamic religion was known in Ethiopian from the time of the coming of the first followers of Mohammed in the 5^th C.A.D it was only the 16^th century A.D. on wards, after Ahmed Gragn's in vasion that the religion of Islam has developed its own system of education and the teaching of Kuran was started. The aim of the Koranic School was mainly to teach the docrtines of Islam.

The structure of Kuranic school included elementary and higher levels of learning. At the primary level the students learn reading and writing in Arabic. At the next higher levels of learning contents such as the teaching of the Islamic canon Law (Fish), Arabic grammar (Naheu) and the commentaries (Tesfir) are offered.

The process of instruction and evaluation are more or less the same as that of the church school. Most Kuranic schools are not attached to mosques, rather they are usually established in a Muslim community by a teacher known as 'Sheik' who is will versed in Islamic Studies. Te teacher depends for his livelihood on parents gifts which he gets when children succeed various levels of the course.

4.6.1.      Mission Schools:

Starting from the second half of the 16^th century A.D. European missionaries have played significant roles in the education system of Ethiopia. This was the time when Christopher de Gama of Portugal arrived in Ethiopian with an expeditionary force to assist Emperor Litna Dingh whose country had been largely overrun by Ahmed Grange (Bender, 1976).

At the beginning, the Portuguese attend to preach Chatolic doctrine was in vain. However, they were able to open school through the support of Emperor Susinyos who was conversed to Catholicism in 1622 (Bender, 1976) and who then forced his subjects to adopt his faith. This was followed by strong opposition and revolt against the emperor by the large sector of the Ethiopian population. Consequently, Emperor Susinyos abdicated in 1632 in favour of his son Fasiledes who then expelled the Jesits and begener reinforcing the original Orthodox Christian faith. This resulted in isolation ofthe country cut off from missionary activities for about 299 years. In the early years of the 19^th Century contact with Europe and Protestant missionaries revived again (MOE, 1973). In the 1830s, Iseberg and Kraft (protestant missionaries) taught boys in Shoa in their mission school (Bender, 1976). In 1841/142, Isenberg published the first secular books in Amharic (Benders 1976). Unlike the traditional schools, throught the effort of these missionaries, modern type of education like spelling, reading a book, geography and history were introduced in the school curriculum.

The Roman Catholic missions of the nineteenth century were predominately French and their schools taught French in three major centers: Eriteria, Shoa and later.

While the Catholic missions  employer French as a medium of instruction, the protestant missions used English which later on became on important language in Ethiopian school ever since (MOE, 1971).

At present, mission schools are disseminated throughout the country and they offer all types of education including teacher training. Many mission schools have gained more higher standard of education than any of the traditional schools. Per keys this can be attributed as one of the major factors for the expansion of mission schools in the country (Yalew, 1976).

4.7.    The development of modern Education in Ethiopia

The development of modern education in Ethiopia is a twentieth century phenomena. Although the ambitious and enlightened Emperor Theodros saw the need for modern technology and invited foreign craftsmen to come to his country and teach his people the skills of metal work and carpentry, it was not before the turn of the 20^th Century that objective conditions necessitated the establishment of modern education in Ethiopia. Among the conditions were:

-      the formation of a centralized government at the close of the 19^th Century which demanded the establishment of diplomatic relations with the external world.

-      the establishment of the Franco-Ethiopian railway which linked the country with the external world and demanded mechanics and technicians for its running.

-      the introduction of modern means of communication such as telephone, radio, postal system which required trained personnel to maintain the establishments functioning.

In addition to this, the view that Ethiopia, once a great and powerful nation, had stagnated due to conservatism and resistance to change, had gained ground as a result of the advocacy of modern education by the contemporary authors such as Gebrehiwet Baykedagne, Blatta Gebregziabher. Gila Mariam, Afework Gebreyesus and Alefa Taye Gebre Mariam (Tekeste, 1990). On top of  these it was believed that education held the key to Ethiopias development.

On the other hand, the Ethiopian Church, which up to that period had a virtual monopoly on education, strongly opposed the establishment of seuldr school. Emperor Minilik overcome church opposition by giving in to many of its demands (Tekeste, 1990)

Emperor Minilik II, following Emperor Theodros steps saw the need for the introduction of new technology and brought three sauiss artisans - an iron worker, wood worker and civil engineer in 1877, among which Alfred Ilg was the civil engineer. The arrival of these men underlined the need to develop new forms of education in the country (MOE,1973). Accordingly the first modern government school was opened in 1908 with the aim of producing interpreters and Clerks. The curriculum mainly contained the teaching of foreign languages such as French, English, Italian, Arabic and the native language Amharic, During the first twenty years of its existence, Minilik school resembled a language institute rather than a proper school (Tekeste, 1990).

Following the opening of Minilik II school in Addis Ababa other schools were opened at Ankober, Dessie and Harar. Because of the inability of the country to bring up its own education modern education was introduced from abroad. Menilik II school was staffed by Egyptian teachers who employed French as a medium of instruction. The curriculum included French, English, Italian, Arabic, Mathematics and Science and the native language Amharic. Secular authorities became responsible for the program.

The purposes of education were to keep the ruling elote for better contact with the outside world and to make the elite competent in court affairs and in defining law articles, Pbjectives of education emphasized on loyality to king and country.

The opening of modern schools. continued after Minilik II. Between 1924 - 1931 several government schools were opened both in Addis and in the provinces including the Teferi Mekonen school which was opened in 1924.

The curriculum in operation what not indigenous but was one which was brought from France. This entailed the offering of education in French. Ethiopians were alien to the French experience and the curriculum become alien. In addition, French education was characterized by assimilation.

This modern education was not accepted in Ethiopia. It was opposed by the coptic Cherch of Alexanderia and Syria for its emphasis on worldly affairs. As a result of this aopposition the curriculum was made to include moral education, Ethiopian history, Geez reading and writing. By the eve of the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, there were about 22 primary schools throughout the country.

Unfortunately, this modest but promising progress in modern education was interrupted by the Italian invasion in 1935. As a result of the invasion, all government schools were closed down and the few educated were killed by the Italians.

In 1941 when Ethiopia restored its freedom the immediate need of the country was to rebuild the education system to generate a supply of Ethiopian persoanl. This noble aim, however, was challenged by the problem of staffing the schools.

In 1942 the Ministry of Public Education and Fine Arts was Established with H.E. Ato Mekonen Desta as the first minister (MOE, 1973). Britain offered an aid to run modern education which brought about the elimination of the French influence and introduction of the British influence. Closed schools were spend and preparation and printing of Amharic textbooks for elementary schools were in progress. For the first time that years expenditure on education amounted to 6000,000 birr

In 1943 the first secondary school called G.S.I.S.S., was opened in Addis Ababa with an initial intake of 43 students. In this school the teachers were predominantly expatriates. In this school the teachers were predominately expatiates and the medium of instruction was English.

There was hardly any centralized curriculum. All the schools were administered by foreign principals and headmasters of different nationalities. They followed the kind of curriculum through which they have passed or see it fit. There were no definite programs for the primary school. This  created problem of standardization and caused disparity. There were no clearly defined objectives and no unity in objectives and hence the disparity.

After independence Ethiopian government was engaged in the expansion of education without consideration as to relevance. Expenditure on education rose from just over half a million birr in 1942 to over 19 million by 1958-59. Thus the second highest item in the national budget become education structure of the educational system was three tiered 4-4-4. The first four years were for primary, the next four years for middle or intermediate and the third four years for secondary education.

During this period because of the operation of mission and private schools along lines of different nationalities and religious beliefs it was not possible to build an Ethiopian system of education .

To do away with problems cited above, the first curriculum committee was established by the Board of Education formed to study and recognize the educational system by the education act of 1947. The Board determined as a matter of policy that all the elementary schools of the country should have the same teaching schedule.

The development of new ideology and political influence came to the fore after the end of the 2^nd world war and Ethiopia could not escape this influence. It was at this time that the American influence began. As part of an aid package the American began to shape the Ethiopian  educational policy through an education advisory group. The purpose of the group was to control education, to design and define a unified curriculum and publish text books, Accordingly, the first relatively organized curriculum appeared in 1948-49.

The point Four Scheme was turned on in 1950 with the aim of producing a scheme of curriculum development project. The structure of education become a 6-6 structure. After a while the structure was changed to 8-4 structure. Reason was language problem since the medium of instruction was English.

In 1951 the first university college was opened in Addis Ababa with an initial intake of 75 students. This marked the beginning of tertiary level education which was followed by the opening of engineering, building, agriculture and public health colleges.

An regards the aim of education the first curriculum had the following.

4.      In conformity with the need of the hour, to establish both adequate institutions for the educational  care of the young ... and make sure these schools ensure normal spiritual, mental, physical growth to the coming generation.

5.      In view of the interruption, in which many of the youth of the present generation had their schools stopped, to extend the superstructure of the plan to afford as many of them as possible an opportunity to regain, at least in part, their unavoidable instructional bases.

6.      To further extend the plan to bring eventually general literacy within this generation, to the entire population by means of mass education.

Standards of education in other countries and subject matter included in the curriculum are said to have been considered as they concern Ethiopia. Meeting these two characteristics was the main problem of the curriculum. In line with this, the content for secondary school syllabus was entirely selected based upon what appears essential for Ethiopian children and on what is usually included in the generally accepted curriculum entirely on the London School Leaving Certificate Examination without regard to its relevance, to Ethiopia, the creation and staffing of the various ministries and authorities along the western type of formal education

Promotion from one level of school system to the next is checked by external examination given by Ministry of Education at the 6^th, 8^th and 12^th grades (MOE, 1969). At the end of grade 12, the S.L./e was qualifying students fro a variety of higher level learning. The programmer range from one year diploma courses to four year degree courses. In addition, courses for architecture, low and medicine range between 5 to 7 years.

This curriculum was criticized for reasons that the aim remaining national the content is made foreign. The educated is expected to apply his knowledge in solving immediate problems of the society but fails to do so for the learning experiences he has acquired are alien to the Ethiopian situation and can not use his knowledge. As a result knowledge becomes impractical to achieve intent. The selection of contents is said to be examination oriented. Most of the tie is devoted to academic subject, English having the lion's share.

Overall the contents are borrowed from foreign countries and are directly implanted with out any adaptation. As a result, there was a disparity between objectives and contents and the contents could not serve to achieve the desired ends. The subjects were more theoretical.

There was also a mix up of contents. For instance, in mathematics the students were made to learn the British system after having learned the metric system and this created complication. The history and geography contents were more of the external world jumping from content to continent, from country to country. As a result the syllabi of most of the subjects lack relevance to Ethiopian needs.

To overcome these problems a long term planning committee was appointed in 1953 and this committee designed the 4-4-4 structured curriculum. The original tendency of the educational system was designed to develop the humanities, later on, however, the emphasis has been on technical and vocational education to provide plumbers, engineers mechanics of various kinds, electricians, agriculturalists, artisans as well as experts. The committee recommended that the curriculum be designed to prepare the learner for life in his community or immediate environment.

Later on a national planning committee was constituted which produced the first five year development plan 1957-61. The plan stressed the need for trained manpower. In accordance with this plan the second curriculum appeared in 1959.

Since 1957, though a number of attempts were made to adapt the curriculum to the realities of Ethiopia, it remained bookish and academic oriented; different policies were set but little was done in practice.

The curricula were based for the most part on overseas models and reflected little in the way of Ethiopia content. The administration of modern education systems in the country was dominated by expatriates. As this was the case and while the government of Ethiopia continued to believe that it was laying down the foundations for the rapid development of the new Ethiopian, intellectuals like Dr. Mulugeta Wodajo (1959) reflected on the basic problems of the education sector: Dr. Mulugeta, pointed out, among other things, the following limitations of the educational system of the day.

-      The inadequacy of the system

-      The irrelevance of the curriculum

-      The administrative and intellectual confusion created by the deliberate, recruitment of teachers from many nations, and

-      Over centralization.

Equipped with the recommendation of the long term planning committee and the resolutions of the Addis Ababa conference on African Education (1961), the Ministry of Education proceeded to expand education well beyond its financial limits (Tekeste, 1990 p.7). Especially the objectives set by the Addis Ababa conference on African Education, that is, universal primary education by 1980, plunged Ethiopia into a policy of expansion of the sector without regard to quality and job opportunities. To overcome the shortage of funds the cooperation between the world Band and the Ethiopian government to expand education began in 1966.

The first education project signed in 1966 and completed in 1972, assisted in the expansion of secondary, technical and teacher education, and in the diversification of curricula at various levels (Tekeste, 1990). Between 1966 - 1984 six education projects well signed to improve the different aspects of education including quality and equity but to no avail. The world Bank invested nearly 200 US dollars for the six projects.

While the education sector, gaining its own momentum expanded virtually uncontrolled, the Ministry of Education attempted to restructure the system without any significant success. In 1963-64 the grade structure was changed from the 4-4-4 year combination into six years of primary school, followed by two years of junior secondary and a four year secondary programme, that is a 6+2+4 year combination (Tekeste, 1990)

Despite all these efforts there was an enormous disparity between the educational program and the needs arising from the social situations. As a result there were a strong calls from educators, intellectuals, university students, government officials, and students often echoed by parents, for further improvement of the educational system.

Dissatisfaction which the educational sector was also voiced by conservative elements; the church and the nobility pointed out that those who passed through the modern school were disrespectful of their society and its institutions. They argued that there was very little that was Ethiopian in the curriculum. Further-more, they jointed to the problem of employment facing secondary graduates- a most paradoxical situation in a country where only about four percent of the age group had access to secondary education and where over 90 percent of the population were illiterate. As a response to the above criticism. The Education sector Review (ESR) was officially constituted in 1971 with the following responsibilities:

-      to analyze the education and training system of Ethiopia and its capability of promoting economic, social and cultural development;

-      to suggest whenever necessary ways to improve and expand the education and training system in order that it might achieve aims relevant both to the society and the overall development of the  country;

-      to suggest ways in which education could best be utilized to promote a natural integration; and

-      to identify priority studies and investments in education and training  (Tekeste, 1990)

Study results of the Education sector Review proposed three alternatives designed to hasten the pace of primary education. The first alternative proposed three alternatives designed to hasten the pace of primary education. The first alternative proposed a three tier system based on six years of primary, their yers of junior secondary and four years of senior secondary schooling (6+4+4)

Alternative two, called for a system based on four years of primary education (known as minimum formation education) for the great majority of the population. Followed by another four years junior secondary program and next foru years of senior secondary program (4+4+4).

Alternative three was a modification of alternative two (4+2+2) where the junior secondary is reduced from four to two years. It was also suggested that students begin grade one at nine years of age.

The ESR conference that met in August 1972 approved alternative two that is the 4+4+4 year system. According to this system a great majority of school-age population attend a four year primary education. About 20 percent would then proceed to follow another four year junior secondary programme. The best of those completing great eight would be allowed to attend the four year senior secondary programme. More over, the S.R. made the rural population the target of educational policy. It was also envisaged that secondary educationo would increase at the rate of the growth of the population, estimated at 2.1 percent per annum. This was indeed a sharp decrease compared with the over 10 percent annual inclement of senior secondary enrolment during the decade of the 1960s (Tekeste, 1990)

The recommendations of the ESR were not implement, partly because the urban population parents, students, teachers- [received the decrease in secondary enrolment and the emphasis given to the rural population as a detrimental to their interests. The crisis in education and the recommendations of the ESR mobilized. Students and teachers to strike and led to sucessive wave of local and national strikes that began early in 1974 and continued unabated until the overthrow of the Imperial system in september 1974.

4.8.    Post Revolution Ethiopian Education

The Ethiopian Revolution of 1974 enforced drastic change which brought about a new social system. Ideological changes brought about changes in the political, economic and social aspects as a result of which there was a need for a new educational system.

At the start of the revolution of the Imperial regime was criticized for being elitist giving more emphasis to intellectual education produce while color professionals disregarding technical education. It was regarded as less labour oriented and less democratic. It is said to be not equally distributed and have dual characteristics- quality education for the higher class and lower quality education for the lower class children. In addition it is criticized for pursuing a curriculum that was foreign to the needs of the country.

In an attempt to change this type of educational system a new educational policy was sought that emphasized on socialist ideology. The policy included

-      The provision of education for all

-      giving equal opportunity for technical, vocational labour and physical education, and education for production, for scientific research and for class struggle, became the three mottos of education and a transitional curriculum was set. Educational policies were set by adapting some socialist countries' educational experiences and by borrowing the technological and intellectual exercises.

The post revolution military state accepted the challenge of exponding the education sector on the assumption that education held the key to the country's development (Tekeste 1990)

Between 1976-1982 the MOE developed a plan designed to avoid the growing pool of unemployable secondary school graduates. According to this plan, emphasis was to be  placed on  providing eight years of universal polytechnical education and on a curriculum that would enhance integration into the world of labour. This policy, partially accepted by the government, had the abiton of providing eight years of universal education to all children of primary school age by 1986 (Tekeste, 1990).

The major problem of the transitional curriculum was the question of centralization and democratization, and problem of balance between change and continuity. Democratization of education allowed: for participation of parents in the school administration.

-      fpr establishing schools in the boarder areas of the country which led to shortage of trained teachers and teaching resources.

-      for privatization of schools and this made the control less effective

-      The problem of the use of Amharic as a medium of instruction in the country of multi nationalities was felt.

-      The question of having a balanced curriculum which would help to produce an intellectually and ideologically matured poison and a proposionally trained one become the question of the day. As a result of the more expansion of schools. The decline in the quality of education was sensed.

-      To the effect of identifying the causes of the decline the government passed a resolution in 1983 calling for a review of the education sector. Seen after, the ministry of Education initiated a project known as the Evaluative Research on the General Education system of Ethiopia (ERGESE).

The ERGESE project and the following objectives

              i.      to examine the degree of integration of each subject with the national educational objectives;

            ii.      to analyze student textbooks with the aim of understanding their integration (content and clarity) with the national objectives;

          iii.      to assess the impact of time allocation, language of instruction, and the material delivery system on educational objectives;

          iv.      to look into the factors affecting students' reception of education;

            v.      to examine teachers' attitudes to their profession;

          vi.      to assess inputs and attitudes of parents; and finally.

        vii.      to assess the teaching learning process

The aim of education of the day was ideology oriented and this was clearly expressed at the founding congress of the workers party of Ethiopia (WPE) in 1984. It reads.

The fundamental aim of education in our country today is to cultivate Marxist-Leninist ideology in the young generation, to develop knowledge in science and technology, in the new culture and the arts, and to integrate and coordinate research which production to enable the Revolution to move forward and secure productive citizens.

The summery report of ERGESE begins by pour ting out the bottlenecks that affect the quality of education. Classes throughout the country are cancelled with out reasons. The number of students has greatly expanded, thus creating a serious shortage of classrooms. There is a great shortage of school instruments, beginning with the components for laboratories and textbooks. The competence of teachers leaves a great deal to be desired. Student ambitions are judged to be very law. Many reasons are given both for low motivation and for very high drop out rated in the first and sixth trades. Both teachers and students concentrate on the exam rather than on the acquisition and retention of knowledge. The stages of the education ladder, i.e. Primary, junior secondary, and  coordina.... . And finally, the gap between theory and practice is too wide due to the problem of the lack of physical space in schools. 83% of the schools have no access to agricultural plots, thus turning the main objective, i.e. education for production, in to purely theoretical exercise, Here, it is worth nothing, Tekeste's (1990) argument to continue to expect the realization or implementation of the objective "education for production." without first fulfilling the minimum requirements, amounts to viewing the school as a miracle performing institution.

ERGESE also reported that the expansion of the educational system is not in accordance with the economic resource capability of the state.

The final ERGESE report containing the findings and recommendations was submitted to the government at the end of 1985. Since then it has not been  possible to establish the extent to which the government adopted the recommendations, It appears that the government has either ignored the ERGESE report or simply shelved it. But one thing is clear, that is, the Ethiopian education became far more worest, in the latter days, than what has been reported by ERGESE. This was manifested by the increase in class size which reached in some urban schools to 120 students in a class and the introduction of the half day school or shift system, Shortage of texts and teachers. Problem in Proficiency of the English language become so prominent that Amharic or native language was used to make ease of communication and understanding of contents.

4.5.  The New Education and Training policy

4.5.1.  Social political conditions that called for the Development of a new educational policy.

During the early days of its development the Ethiopian modern education was highly influenced by external  forces. At first, the modern schools opened were French influenced. When came the British influence after the defeat of War in 1945 it was influenced by the American style this influence continued until the gall of the feudal social system in 1974.

Since 1974 the Ethiopian educational system witnessed two major changes influenced by internal political and social conditions. The first major change took place in 1974 when the Feudal political system was over thrown by the 'Derge' (Military Junta) regime. The condition took place in 1994 when the new educational and training policy was set after the over throw of the military government by forces of EPRDF in 191.

            The new education and training policy document indicated that the education system of the 'Derge' regiem was entangled with complex problems in that it.

Ø  Lacked relevance to the social reality

Ø  Lacked quality

Ø  Lacked equity and was not accessible.

In addition, inadequate facilities, insufficient training of teachers, overcrowded classes, shortage of books and other teaching materials every mentioned as indicators of law quality of education. Law  participation rate only 22% of the relevant age cohort have  access to school. of these a large number discontinues and relapse to illiteracy. The disparity among regions in high. Opportunities for high school education and technical and vocational training are limited to big towns. Higher education institutions are found only in very few regions. Illiteracy is an overall problem of the society (ETP. PP 2-3).

To cope with these problems, the Federal democratic republic government of Ethiopia set a new education and training policy. The policy has stated the general and specific objectives of education and training; overall strategy of implementation and areas of special attention and action priority.

The policy emphasizes the development of problem solving capacity and culture in the content of education curriculum structure and approach, focusing on the acquisition of scientific knowledge and practicum.

If incorporates the structure of education in relation to the development of student profile, educational  measurement and evaluation, medial of instruction and language teaching at various levels, the recruitment, training, methodology, organization, professional attics and career development of teachers.

The provision and appropriate usage of educational facility, technology, materials, environment, organization and management; the evaluation of a decentralized, efficient and professionally coordinated participatory system are indicated as a means to facilitate the teaching learning process. It is also stated that the financing of education be just, efficient and appropriate to promote equity and quality of education (ETP, PP.4-6)

4.5.2. Objectives of education and training

The New educational and Training policy of 1994 has it that the education and training envisage the bringing up of citizens endowed with human outlooks, country wide responsibility and democrat values, having developed the necessary productive, creative  and appreciative capacity in order to participate fruitfully in development and the utilization of resources and the environment at large. To this end, the following general educational objectives are stated.

1.      Develop the physical and mental potential and the problem-solving capacity of individuals by expanding education and in particular by providing basic education for all.

2.      Bring up citizens who can take care of the utilize resources wisely, who are trained in various skills, by raising the private and social benefits of education.

3.      Bring up citizens who respect human rights, stand for the well being of people, as well as for equality, justice and peace, endowed with democratic culture and discipline.

4.      Bing up citizens who differentiate harmful practices from useful ones, who seek and  stand for truth, appreciate aesthetics and show positive attitude to wards the development and dissemination of science and technology in society.

5.      Cultivate the cognitive, creative, productive and appreciative potential of citizens by appropriately relating education to environment and society of needs.

These general educational objectives are followed by numerous operational objectives (for details see policy document PP.8-11

4.5.3.  Implementation strategy

With the aim of realizing the above objectives the policy has forward different  strategies among which are?

 4.5.3.1 Curriculum

Ø  Preparation of curriculum based on the stated objectives and ensuring that relevant standard and expected student profile are achieved.

Ø  Creating a mechanism by which teachers, professionals, and beneficiaries participate in the preparation, implementation and evaluation of the curriculum.

Ø  Ensuring that the curriculum developed and textbooks prepared at central and regional levels are based on sound pedagogical and psychological principles and are up to international standard, giving due attention to concrete local conditions and gender issues.

Ø  Creating a mechanism for an integrated educational research, and overall periodic evaluation of the educational system, where by a wible ranging of participation is ensured to faster appropriate relation among the various levels of education, training, research, development and societal needs, maintaining the required standards.

4.5.3.2    Educational structure

Education is structured from kindergarten up to higher or tertiary level education. Basic and general education, technical and vocational and special education for those people with special needs is to be provided  (for details see policy document PP.14-17)

Prior to the issuance of the new education and training policy the educational structure was 6-2-41 i.e, 6 years of primary education, 2 years of junior secondary education and 4 years of sender secondary education.

The new education policy has changed the structure to 4-4-2-2 type. That is , primary education is for 8 years subdivided in to two cycles first cycle 1 4th grade (basic education) and second cycle-grades 5-8 (general education).

Secondary education is again subdivided in to two cycles general secondary education grades 9-10 and preparatory senior secondary education grades 11-12. This is to be followed by higher education programs that range from 2-3 years for diploma and 3-5 years for undergraduate and 2-3 years for post graduate studies. In addition there is kindergarten education for children aged 4-6 years which focuses on all-round development of the child in preparation for formal school in parallel to general education, diversified technical and vocational training is to be provided. Special education system and distance education programmes are offered at different levels.

Basic education will focus on literacy, innumeracy environment, agriculture, crafts, have science, health servi3ece and civics.

Non formal education will be concrete in its content, focus on enabling the learners develop problem solving attitudes and deivities.

Training will be grained in agriculture, crafts, construction, basic bookkeeping in the form of apprenticeship for those with the appropriate age and leaving primary school.

4.5.3.3. Educational measurement and Examination

Ø  Continuous assessment in academic and practical subjects, including aptitude tests will be conducted to ascertain the formation of all round profile of students at all levels

Ø  National examinations will be conducted at grade eight and ten to certify completion of primary and general secondary education respectively.

Ø  In order to get promoted from one level to the next, students will be required to have a minimum of fifty percent achievement.

Ø  Students will be officially certified at  the completion of the various levels of education.

Ø  Official certification will also be given to those who complete technical and vocational training programes.

Ø  After the second  cycle of secondary education, students will be required to sit for examination of relevant institutions for admission.

Ø  A national organization of educational measurement and examination will be established to provide central professional guidance and coordination as well as to make the necessary expertise available.

4.5.3.4.          Teachers

Ø  A ascertain that teacher trainees have the ability, diligence, professional interest and  physical and mental fitness appropriate for the profession

Ø  Create a mechanism by which employers, training institutions and the Teachers' Association participate in the recruitment of trainees.

Ø  Teacher education and training components will emphasize basic knowledge, professional code of ethics, methodology and practical training.

Ø  Teachers will be certified before assigned to teach at any level of education.

Ø  Teachers, starting from kindergarten to higher education, will be required to have the necessary teaching qualification and competency in the media of instruction, through pre-service and in -service training.

Ø  The criteria for the professional development of teachers will be continuous education and training, professional ethics and teaching performance.

Ø  A professional career structure will be developed in respect to professional development of teachers.

Ø  Teacher training institutions, including higher education will function autonomously with the necessary authority, responsibility and accountability.

Ø  Teacher training institutions of all levels will be required to gear their programmes towards the appropriate educational level for which they train teachers.

Ø  Special attention will be given to the participation of women in the recruitment training and assignment of teachers.

Ø  Teacher training for special education will be provided in regular teacher training programmes.

Ø  Various steps will be taken to promote incentives to motivate teachers specially to those assigned in hardship areas.

4.5.3.5. Language and Education

• Cognizant  of the pedagogical advantage of the child in leasing in mother tongue and the rights of nationalities to promote the use of their language, primary education will be given in nationality languages.
•  Making the necessary preparation , nations and nationalities can either learn in their own language or can choose from among those selected on the basis of national and country wide distribution.
•  The language of teacher training for kindergarten and primary  education will be the nationality language used in the area.
•  Amharic shall be taught as a language of country wide communication.
• English will be the medium of instruction for  secondary and higher education
• Students can choose and learn at least one nationality language and  one foreign language for cultural and international relation.
•  English will be taught as a subject starting from grade one.
•  The necessary steps will be taken to strengthen language reaching at all levels

On top of these the implementation strategy saw the need to establish a tight bond between education, training , research and development the participants- students, teachers, researchers will be made to get the necessary field experiences and a coordinated curriculum  development will be ensured.

More over, in order to promote the quality, relevance and expansion of education, due attention will be given to the supply, distribution and utilization of educational materials, technology and facilities. Mechanisms of manpower training and maintenance, proper utilization of educational support inputs will be developed to ensure relevance and standards.

As regards educational organization and management it will be decentralized to create the necessary condition to expand, enrich and improve the  relevance, quality accessibility and equity of education and training.

Educational management will be democratic, professionally coordinated, efficient and will encourage the participation of women. The management of teachers and other educational personnel will be organized on the basis of professional principle, including professional code of ethics, salary, working conditions, incentives professional growth and overall right and duties.

When it came to educational finale the priority  for government financial support will be up to the completion of general secondary education and related training ( grade 10) with increased cost sharing at higher levels of education and training.

To the effect of putting  the strategies in to practice the policy identified the following three areas of special attention  and action priority

1. Change of curriculum and preparation of educational materials accordingly.
2. Focus on teacher training and overall  professional  development of teacher and other personnel.
3.  Change of educational organization and management.

4.5.4    Change of curriculum and preparation of educational materials 

Change of curriculum and preparation of educational materials was designed to be done step by step and gradually. Curriculum change and preparation of education materials for primary education was to be carried out and implemented from 1996-99 .the  curriculum for secondary education from 1999-2003.

4.5.4.1. Features of the new curriculum

 4.5.4.1.1. Relevance of the curriculum -(see distance material pp.291-297)

4.5.5. Focus  on teacher training and over all professional development of teachers

            To facilitate the implementation  of the policy in the area of teacher education, a task force was formed to study the problem areas in teacher education. The task force's duly was to investigate in to the quality and effectiveness of the teacher education system of the country.

            The study report of the task force (May,2002) On titled the Quality and  Effectiveness of Theater Education in Ethiopia. A Report at the study Findings with recommendations for Action," Showed that Ethiopian Teacher education has multi faceted  problems, These were:

•  The  professional competence of teachers is deficient
•  The consent knowledge of teachers is unsatisfactory
• The Teaching skills and techniques  are very basic
•  Teacher do not match up to the standards and expectations of their profession.
•  There are failures in school management and administration including lack of knowledge of the ETP and Proper implementation of the career structure.
• There is a mismatch between teacher education and school education.
• There is lack of professionalism and ethical values in the teacher education programme
• The quality of courses and methods of teaching are theoretical and teacher centered.
• The practicum receives inadequate emphasis and is inefficiently implemented at all levels of teacher education
• Student assessment does not adequately identify difficulties and potential in order to enhance students' learning.
• Action research is given little or no attention at all levels of teacher education, and
• TEIs, schools and communities have insufficient links between them.

Based on these findings the task force recommended a complete teacher education system overhaul and hence, the emergence of TESO.

In line with this the TESO program brought changes in content, and method and time in the curriculum of teacher education. As regards content emphasis is given to professional courses unlike the previous curriculum which emphasizes on subject area. Professional courses are raised from 22-24 credit hours to 30-32 credit hours. Teaching practice that had 2-3 credit hours is replaced by practicums that  have 25 credit hours.

New course such as action research, civics and ethics, communication English skills and ICT are included.

Method wise a paradigm shift is made from teacher centered passive learning to learner centered active learning where techniques such as inquiry, discovery, problem solving, practical activities etc, which provide for more student participation are advocated.

As regards evaluation, continuous assessment of student progress and learning, involving practical exercises and products of students, is suggested to be put into practice.

For the purpose of professional teacher development short term trainings such as the training workshop on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Diploma Programs for teacher certification, in-service and preserves programs are to be implemented.

To  improve educational organizations and man agent school  principals and institute managers are to be trained through inservice and short-term programs respectively.

Competence expected of teachers

The MOE has not the following competences that teachers at all levels must exhibit; these will guide the nature organization and management of all pre-service courses:

-      Competence in producing responsible citizens

-      Competence in the subject(s) and content of teaching

-      Competence in the classroom, including communication and approaches to learning: class organizations and management; assessment

-      Competence in area relating to the school and education system

-      Competence in the values, attributes, ethics and competence in the values, attributes, ethics and abilities essential to the proposition

Some underlying principles

-      Practicum is at the center of the program

-      Emphasis on active learning and student centered learning

-      Continuals and practically based assessment

-      Teaching that makes change

Length of pre-service programmes

In line with the country's economic and social capacities, needs and developments, the duration of the pre-service programmes will be

-      for the certificate programme (grades 1-4) one academic year, with entry after grade 10. There will be 40 weeks of instruction per year. For the diploma programme (grades 5-8) three academic years, with entry after grade 10. The semesters will be 16 weeks;

-      for the degree programme (grades 9-12 and the sitting og the university set entrance examination the semester will be 16 weeks

Language for teaching and learning

In the pre-service programmes the language for teaching and learning will be

-      for the certificate programme- the nationality language as decided by regions;

-      for the diploma programme- the language chosen by the regions;

-      for the degree programme. English

Curriculum

In all c cycles, the programme will consist of 3 elements

-      Practicum: this forms the control core of all fore- service programmes, and accaunts for approximately 25% of the time. It is important that the practicum is understood as the time spent by the students developing their understanding of the complexity of teaching and learning in schools and the role of to plan and develop partnership with schools so that the students get support and advice from school - teachers that matches the support and advice they get from their TEI....

-      Professional studies: including in 1^st and 2^nd cycle

• Teaching in the Ethiopian context, general teaching methods, child development, special educational needs, professional and topical issues; (ICT for 2^nd cycle). In secondary education: educational psychology, curriculum study, educational measurement and evaluation, organization and management; action research; ICT; Civics and ethical education
• Subject teaching: for 1^st cycle: integrated subjects; for 2^nd cycle one of 4 academic streams (Natural sciences, Social sciences, Language, Aesthetics) for secondary, one major and one minor subject.

Matching curricula of TEI and Schools

As a further step towards improving the quality of new teachers, TEIs are expected to ensure their students are properly familiar with the consent of the curricula they will have to teach, as well as appropriate teaching methods. This will affect the subject teaching in TEIs.

Assessment

Continuous assessment of subject knoledge and understanding.

Two or more activities, one or two of which are not written assignments. There must include some elements of group work.

Continuous assessment- Practical

Two or three assessments, one or two of which assess teaching skills, These must include some elements of group work.

Project.

A substantial piece of practical work or action research.

Final examination.

This must give the students the opportunity to demonstrate their full ability. It must include at least on essay or creative writing question (This does not need to be scheduled for 1^st cycle)

Assessment of the practicum

Continuous assessment - in relation to the competencies 25%

An aggregate of two or three assessments. They could include microteaching, presentation, written assignments, preparation of teaching materials, etc.

Period of block teaching - in relation to the competences 50% classroom teaching skills in the school situation. An aggregate of two or three assessments, half on the tEI soft and half by school staff.

Portfolio- File of all activities and experiences.

An aggregate of two or three pieces, which must include one major piee of research and a substantial element of self-evaluation, plus any other work eg. teaching mateials lesson plans, evaluations, reflection on own teaching, observation.

The final grade will combine the morks for each of these elements in proportion to their credit hours.

Summary

Traditional education in Ethiopian had two forms- the indigenous and church education. Indigenous education, as is the case in any social group, has the role of socializing the child by learning the social norms, values beliefs etc and by developing the fundamental arts of survival. Parents and elderly people of the comminity were responsible for the informal education of the child.

The curch education, on the other hand, was responsible to inculeate the christian faith and develop the child morally. To this effect it has an organized and hierarchically structued system of education which involved reading, writing, computing, singing and dancing that were used to enhance learning and reader service to the church. The method involved oral memorization and reaction and evaluation was based on checking mastery of orally learnt learning material.

Modern education in Ethiopia is a 20^th century phenomena where the first modern elementary school was opened in 1908 by Emperor Minlik II. The then prevalent conditions that demanded the establishment of modern education were both political and social. Politically a central government was established at the turn of the 19^th century and there was a need of educated people to establish diplomatic relations. At the same time new types of communication services such as telephone, postal system, radio, rail transport were introduced which called for trained personnel other than who have church education. Though there were oppositions from the coptic church against the introduction of modern education, it got momentum and many schools were open between 1908 to 1935 when Italy invaded Ethiopia. When Ethiopia restored its independence 1941 it embarked on reopening the schools considering education to be the Key factor to development. The curriculum, however, was influenced by Western forces that were in attachment with the country. Fixed it was French influenced then British and then American. This was at the time of Emperor H.SII Even though the curriculum underwent different changes and reforms, it didn't become relevant to the Ethiopian situation and couldn't serve the purpose for which it was meant.

In 1994 when the Emperial government was over thrown by the military region (Derg) curriculum of the Emporor's time was criticized for being irrelevant to the Ethiopian realities; for being elitist and for preparing white color workers giving less emphasis to technical and vocational education. In addition to this, since the Derg regiem was socialist ideology oriented, the curriculum was again influenced by the eastern block, measures, that were said to be democratizing and socializing education, such as decentralization, participation use of mother tongue were taken but to no avail.

In 1994 when the new education and training policy was set to  develop the present curriculum, the curriculum of the Derg regiem was criticized for being irrelevant, lacking quality, equity and not accessible. To do away which these problems the policy document focused on many dimensions of the educational system. Educational aims and objectives are set, strategies for implementation are indicated and action priorities are identified. Teacher education was also given great attention.

References

1.      Seyum Tefera (Dr.)1966) Attempts at Educational Reform in Ethiopia: A Top-down or a Bottom up Reform? The Ethiopian Journal of Education Volume XVI, No.1 Addis Ababa University

2.      Tekeste Negash (1990) The Crisis of Ethiopian Education : Some Implications for Nation Building Uppsala: Department of Education, Uppsal University

3.      Education and Training Policy, Transitional Gov't of Ethiopia, A.A., April 1994

4.      Ma'aza Bekele (1966) A study of Modern Education in Ethiopia" Its Foundations, Development, Future, with Emphasis to Primary Education (Dissetation). Columbia: Columbia University

5.      Bender, M.L. (1976) Language in Ethiopia. London : Oxford University Press.

6.      Ministry of Education (1973) Education Challenge to the Nation. Prts A and B, Addis Ababa Ethiopia.

7.      __________(1969) A brief Report on Educational Development in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa

8.      Lovegrone, M.N. (1973) "Educational Growth and Economic constraints: The Ethiopian Experience." Journal of Comparative Education Vol. IX, no.1, P.20

9.      Yalew Ingidayehu (1976) In service Education Provision for Primary school Teachers in Ethiopia. A Dissertation for the Degree of Master of Education. University of Bathe.

10.  Ministry of Education (1971) The development of In-service Teacher Education. Addis Ababa